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Packet Radio is being used together with the normal voice communications by taxi and courier companies allowing bookings to be electronically transmitted to each vehicle. During the Gulf War, Packet Radio was used by the United States Military to transfer commands to field officers with Terminal Node Controller's (TNC's) connected to their secure SatComm satellite radio's. Except for some subtle differences with addressing in most cases the system used by these organisations an X.25 variant known as AX.25. AX.25, however does not make any reference to the actual physical hardware. Provided the data is transferred end to end in packet form the physical medium is of little concern. The most common method used is a modified random Aloha where a Carrier Sense is used on receivers. Commonly Narrow Band FM (NBFM) is used with 1200 BPS FSK modulation. The system of carrier detect is similar to that used by ethernet. However there are some major differences. With ethernet the transmitted signal is constantly monitored for corruption denoted as Collision Detect or CD. There is no such facility in standard packet radio communications. The exception is operating packet radio through a full duplex repeater. In this case it is possible to monitor the transmitted signal. Unfortunately even when using a full duplex repeater, the transmitted signals are seldom monitored. & /))qq  c   Protocols for Radio Transmission  Of course there are options to AX.25 although they exhibit some problems in terms of usage as well as standardisation. As we speak all commercial packet radio (eg RDLAP, MOBITEX etc) uses some form of strong Forward Error Correction (FEC). The lack of a Forward Error Correcting code in AX.25 is one great deficiency. The other being that it uses a 'Go Back N' retry algorithm rather than a selective repeat algorithm. The selective repeat algorithm would be far better in a radio environment due to the increases in spectral efficiency. Phil Karn has implemented TCPIP operation over the AX.25 protocol using the Unnumbered Information (UI) frames of AX.25. If AX.25 was chosen as a basis for Spread Spectrum transmission it would only be useful to encapsulate an additional protocol. Such a protocol would have FEC, selective repeat amongst other factors.  Y.  Figure 1  Figure 1 y!ph dd ph,y$` ` "".` ` ""K! "$ 6[Figure 1: AX.25 frame structure 8a` 0c& /))qq "+! 0  c  Changes required to upgrade AX.25 to Version 2.1  In looking at the upgrade of AX.25, the ARRL Digital Committee highlighted some problems and proposed solutions [17g][17h]. These problems can be divided into a number of main areas such as: X % Improving channel utilisation" X % Removing bugs and ambiguities" X % Suppressing the connection which never dies." X % Longer Callsigns" X % Parameter negotiation" X % Longer frame sizes" X % High speed operation, other types of links and packaging"  X  Improving Channel Utilisation  X %" X %Where many links coexist on the one frequency there is the tendency for one transmitter to seize the link. For a simplex channel the ppersist has been added. The retry timer has also been modified to allow for exponential increase in interference and high channel usage and automatic retuning when the link improves."  X.  Cleaning up Bugs and Ambiguities  X %Various ambiguities occur in the existing specification which need to be removed in version 2.1. These fixes also repair the problem of some links reestablishing themselves after a disconnect on a marginal channel."  X  Longer Callsigns.  X %Not only was this the hardest problem facing the digital committee it was also the most important. A six character callsign is a problem requiring many users to operate illegally under reciprocal agreements where various extensions must be added to the callsign. In the commercial world the use of six letter is somewhat limiting. Longer callsign fields would be a great improvement in the commercial world. At least in Australia, many commercial callsigns are longer than six letters. " X %Although in many cases there is no legal need to use the callsign it's use is preferred. The Committee was unable to come up with a 100% backward compatible system, but was able to come up with a fallback to the old system when required." 4( /))qq  X  Parameter Negotiation and Longer Frame Sizes.   % X %In association with longer frame sizes it was decided to implement a means of negotiating various parameters such as the length of the frame. The frame would then be able to be larger than 256 Octets long."  Y_  High Speed Operation  X %AX.25 has quite small frame sizes and supports a limited number of outstanding frames. Ideally the number of frames needs to be increased with improvement for selective repeating packets lost."  X  Limitations of AX.25  X %In addition AX.25 Version 2 has some limitations. It is quite suitable for data communications however it has some limitations with respect to error correction. It uses a C.R.C. and it is fairly reliable. However it contains no facility for error correction. " X %Because of this lack of error correction on receive it is proposed that a FEC be added to the standard AX.25 packet." yAp 3dd py$` ` ""` ` ""bA "$  Y (  $: Figure 2: Differences between a telephoneline BBS and a Packet BBS0 ( /))qq 3",A 0  c E`  Hidden Transmitters  Any interference caused by two stations transmitting at the same time causes both packets to be lost in most cases. However, if one of the signals is received at a strength much higher than the other, the signal with highest signal level would be correctly demodulated due to the FM capture effect, presuming that Narrow Band FM (NBFM) is used of course. It is possible to use a full duplex repeater to listen for corrupted packets however this becomes expensive and reduces the versatility of packetised communications. To do this a transmitter and receiver would require a large amount of filtering to remove the transmit signal from bleeding straight into the receiver. Where the transmit and receive frequencies are close this equipment is quite bulky. In packet situations the case of a hidden transmitter is quite common. The hidden transmitter is one which not all users can hear and are, therefore, likely to transmit over. In rugged terrain the problem is increased. Taking this problem of 'hidden transmitters' to a logical extension the channel throughput approaches that of standard Aloha with just under 20% maximum throughput. Where there are no hidden transmitters the channel is almost constantly utilised with almost no collisions. Due to hidden transmitters, packet networks tend to be concentrated about hubs in each geographical area on each frequency. If they were not grouped, stations would tend to hear only a fraction of the total number of stations. The challenge therefore is to maintain the use of a single frequency packet radio system while removing the limitations caused by frequency usage. Unfortunately having all stations in separate receive frequencies would allow stations to independently communicate but would not solve the problem of two users attempting to send to a station when they cannot hear themselves. Therefore, what would be ideal is for all transmissions to all receivers to be totally orthogonal. However we still require a reasonable bandwidth and to use the spectrum responsibly. By making all the transmitted signals orthogonal we are also able to receive more than one signal detectable and identifiable at the receiver. y%/))qq  c  On Packet Networksן  In the HamRadio Digest[34], January 1993 C.E. Piggot comments  W X %One of the potential strengths of packet is as a distributed, redundant system. Adding a repeater greatly reduces collisions, but at a significant expense:" X %X- the repeater is a single point-of-failure, and many people will not be able to or know how to operate without it when the repeater dies" X %X- repeater coverage rarely stays localised. After while, a better antenna, more power, etc. and you wind up with a wide-coverage packet repeater that is jammed up."  In response Phil Karn of Qualcomm made the following comment also in the HamRadio Digest  W X %I happen to agree with this. Using repeaters to reduce collisions  W  does involve a significant opportunity cost. Unfortunately, the alternative techniques to "do it right" are still not yet known in the amateur service. These include:" X %X- Spread spectrum, which creates a channel that degrades more gracefully with multiple simultaneous transmitters than does a narrow band channel." X %X-" X %X- Strong forward error correction coding. By decreasing the required signal-to-noise(interference) ratio, this enhances the ability of spread spectrum to tolerate multiple simultaneous transmitters on a channel. And by reducing the necessary transmitter power to sustain a link, it also reduces interference to other receivers. " X %X- Automatic transmitter power control so you never use more power than is actually necessary to reach a particular node." X %X- Automatic routing algorithms with link metrics based on power/interference estimates so that paths are chosen on the basis of their minimum impact on overall system capacity. That is, you would choose a path of many closely spaced nodes over a few widely spaced nodes because the much lower power required at each hop would more than make up  W{% for the increased number of hops." d&/))qq As Phil Karn works with cellular CDMA at Qualcomm and also has a lot of the major work on packet radio in the last 15 years I suspect that he has a greater grasp of the issues involved. Taking his points individually. Firstly CDMA is a modulation technique which degrades gracefully as is seen in the CDMA cellular telephone system. In it the received signal may be 14 db under the interference from another user. Additional users just add to this interference. However since the additional users are transmitting a mainly orthogonal signal very little of the transmitted signal causes interference. With power control the whole packet system is not being overloaded by those who feel that more transmit power is the answer to a busy channel. Again taking the example of the Qualcomm CDMA cellular telephone system, the voice is sent as packets of data. There are also cases where the transmit power of the telephone is only 100 nW, or the received energy is higher than the transmitted energy. With power control all users are given equal access regardless of the distance of the transmitter. Unfortunately in my thesis I have been unable to implement this. Routing is quite important to overcome the NEARFAR problem. Short links must be used. To this end a protocol such as RSPF could be used. Craig Small, VK2XLZ is completing a thesis on this at the moment. An indication of the distance of a transmitter from the receiver can be obtained by monitoring the BER at the receiver. The protocol needs to be modified to channel network traffic into low BER channels if possible. The present RSPF protocol is designed for standard packet radio networks and their specific problems. E N/))qq  c E`  The TAPR TNC2 In the early 1980's the Tuscon Amateur Packet Radio Group in the USA designed a series of PAD's (Packet Assembler/Disassembler) known as a Terminal Node Controllers. To aid future expansion this TNC had an expansion port for connecting external modems and radios. This port contains all the clock signals a modem designer could ever want. For this reason the author decided that the TAPR TNC should be the basis of any packet system. This therefore really dictates the use of AX.25 as a Level 2 Protocol. This does not affect the ability of the system to operate with experimental protocols which require unconnected information transfer. The UI frame in AX.25 allows for broadcasts. Phil Karn, KA9Q has used these frames to transfer IP datagrams. Unfortunately the TAPR TNC2 is getting quite old, being designed in the mid 1980's using Zilog Z80 microprocessors. Although the Z80 was mandatory for the CP/M operating system used on most computers of the era, CP/M has since died and thus the Z80 family is not as popular as it one was. With increasing power available the traditional job done by the TNC is often being done by the computer the TNC is connected to. The KISS protocol (Described on the next page) is a useful machine independent protocol for transfer between PAD (TNC) and computer. /)